Germany since 1945
Main article: History of Germany since 1945
Post-war state
Main articles: Partitions of Germany and Potsdam Agreement
Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the Stunde Null (zero hour) to describe the
near-total collapse of their country. At the Potsdam Conference, Germany was
divided into four military occupation zones by the Allies. Also in Potsdam, the allies
agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the Oder-Neisse line)
were transferred to Poland and Russia (Kaliningrad oblast). The agreement also
set forth the abolition of Prussia and the expulsion of Germans living in those
territories, and formalized the German exodus from Eastern Europe. In the process
of the expulsions, millions died, and many suffered from exhaustion and
dehydration.
In the immediate post-war years the German population lived on near starvation
levels,[3] and the Allied economic policy was one of de-industrialisation[4]
(Morgenthau Plan) in order to preclude any future German war-making capability.
U.S. policy began to change at the end of 1946[5] (Restatement of Policy on
Germany), and by mid 1947, after lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals
Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration finally realized that economic recovery
in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial
base on which it had previously been dependent.[6] In July, Truman rescinded on
"national security grounds"[7] the punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S.
forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic
rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed
that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a
stable and productive Germany."[8]
Division into East and West Germany
Main articles: East Germany, History of East Germany, and West Germany
The three western occupation zones (US, UK and French zone) would later form the
Federal Republic of Germany (commonly known as West Germany), while the
Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (commonly known as East
Germany), both founded in 1949. West Germany was established as a federal
democratic republic while East Germany became a Communist State under the
influence of the Soviet Union.
West Germany eventually came to enjoy prolonged economic growth beginning in
the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). The recovery occurred largely because of the
previously forbidden currency reform of June 1948 and to a minor degree by U.S.
assistance through Marshall Plan loans.[9][10] West Germany joined NATO in 1955
and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958 .
East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control of the
USSR via her occupation forces and the Warsaw Treaty. While claiming to be a
democracy, the political power was solely executed by leading members (Politburo)
of the communist-controlled SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany). Their power
was ensured by Stasi, a secret service of immense size, and a variety of
SED-suborganizations controlling every aspect of society. In turn, the basic needs of
the population were satisfied at low costs by the state. A Soviet-style command
economy was set up, later the GDR became the most advanced Comecon state.
While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social
programs and the alleged constant thread of a West German invasion, many of her
citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity.[11] The
Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany,
became a symbol of the Cold War.
Main article: History of Germany since 1945
Post-war state
Main articles: Partitions of Germany and Potsdam Agreement
Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the Stunde Null (zero hour) to describe the
near-total collapse of their country. At the Potsdam Conference, Germany was
divided into four military occupation zones by the Allies. Also in Potsdam, the allies
agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the Oder-Neisse line)
were transferred to Poland and Russia (Kaliningrad oblast). The agreement also
set forth the abolition of Prussia and the expulsion of Germans living in those
territories, and formalized the German exodus from Eastern Europe. In the process
of the expulsions, millions died, and many suffered from exhaustion and
dehydration.
In the immediate post-war years the German population lived on near starvation
levels,[3] and the Allied economic policy was one of de-industrialisation[4]
(Morgenthau Plan) in order to preclude any future German war-making capability.
U.S. policy began to change at the end of 1946[5] (Restatement of Policy on
Germany), and by mid 1947, after lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Generals
Clay and Marshall, the Truman administration finally realized that economic recovery
in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial
base on which it had previously been dependent.[6] In July, Truman rescinded on
"national security grounds"[7] the punitive JCS 1067, which had directed the U.S.
forces of occupation in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic
rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed
that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a
stable and productive Germany."[8]
Division into East and West Germany
Main articles: East Germany, History of East Germany, and West Germany
The three western occupation zones (US, UK and French zone) would later form the
Federal Republic of Germany (commonly known as West Germany), while the
Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (commonly known as East
Germany), both founded in 1949. West Germany was established as a federal
democratic republic while East Germany became a Communist State under the
influence of the Soviet Union.
West Germany eventually came to enjoy prolonged economic growth beginning in
the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). The recovery occurred largely because of the
previously forbidden currency reform of June 1948 and to a minor degree by U.S.
assistance through Marshall Plan loans.[9][10] West Germany joined NATO in 1955
and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958 .
East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control of the
USSR via her occupation forces and the Warsaw Treaty. While claiming to be a
democracy, the political power was solely executed by leading members (Politburo)
of the communist-controlled SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany). Their power
was ensured by Stasi, a secret service of immense size, and a variety of
SED-suborganizations controlling every aspect of society. In turn, the basic needs of
the population were satisfied at low costs by the state. A Soviet-style command
economy was set up, later the GDR became the most advanced Comecon state.
While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social
programs and the alleged constant thread of a West German invasion, many of her
citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity.[11] The
Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany,
became a symbol of the Cold War.
The humiliating peace terms provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime.
On 11 August 1919 the Weimar constitution came into effect, with Friedrich Ebert as first President.
The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the German Communist Party (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the
establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new
constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic.
In the first months of 1920, the Reichswehr was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many Freikorps - units made up of
volunteers. Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician Wolfgang Kapp. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself
Reich Chancellor (Kapp Putsch). After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which
were bloodily suppressed.
Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union. Under the
Treaty of Rapallo, Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims.
When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population
of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat
would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also
led to hyperinflation, and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right. See 1920s German inflation.
In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor Gustav Stresemann to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new
currency, the Rentenmark (later: Reichsmark), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial
production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913.
On the evening of November 8, 1923, six hundred armed SA men surrounded a beer hall in Munich, where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local Reichswehr had gathered for a rally. The storm
troopers were led by Adolf Hitler. Born in 1889 in Austria, a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called NSDAP, he was largely unknown until then. Hitler tried
to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power (Beer Hall Putsch). Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after
less than one year of detention.
The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (Ruck nach rechts). Field Marshal Hindenburg, a supporter of the monarchy, was elected President in 1925.
In October 1925 the Treaty of Locarno was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain,
Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of
Nations in 1926.
The stock market crash of 1929 on Wall Street marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation
rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the Darmstätter und Nationalbank - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000.
In addition to the flaggling economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the Reichstag to build a governing majority. In March 1930, President Hindenburg
appointed Heinrich Brüning Chancellor. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency
decrees, and even dissolved Parliament. In March and April 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected in the German presidential election of 1932.
Of the many splinter parties the NSDAP was the largest in the national elections of 1932. The Prussian government had been ousted by a coup (Preussenschlag) in 1932. On July 31, 1932 the NSDAP
had received 37.3% of the votes, and in the election on 6 November 1932 it received less, but still the largest share, 33.1, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third,
with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were
unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the petite bourgeoisie (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural
population; and among the army of unemployed.
On January 30, 1933, pressured by former Chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor.
Weimar Republic Results of Elections 1919-1933, Electiontions 1932, 1933
Third Reich
Main articles: Nazi Germany, The Holocaust, and Military history of Germany during World War II
[edit] Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power'
In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, Hitler called for new elections. On the evening of 27 February 1933, a fire was set in the Reichstag building. Hitler swiftly blamed an alleged
Communist uprising, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree. This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the
Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself.
Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into concentration camps, where they were at the mercy of the Gestapo, the newly established secret police force (9,000 were
found guilty and very many executed). Communist Reichstag deputies were taken into protective custody (despite their constitutional privileges).
Despite the terror and unprecedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of March 5 1933, while resulting in 43.9% failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Together
with the German National People's Party (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. With accommodations to the Catholic Centre Party Germany, Hitler succeeded in convincing
a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass the Enabling act of 1933 which gave his government full legislative power. Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act
formed the basis for the Dictatorship, dissolution of the Länder; the trade unions and all political parties other than the National Socialist (Nazi) Party were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state
was established, no longer based on the liberal Weimar constitution. Germany left the League of Nations. The coalition Parliament was rigged on this fateful 23 March 1933 by defining the absence of
arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a quid pro quo with the Holy
See under the anti-communist Pope Pius XI for the Reichskonkordat; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international
diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933 .
However, many leaders of the Nazi SA were disappointed. The Chief of Staff of the SA, Ernst Röhm, was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the Wehrmacht under his supreme command. Hitler
felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of June 30, 1934, he gave order to the SS to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial (known as the Night of the Long Knives).
The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler. He would become the supervisor of the Gestapo and of the concentration camps, soon
also of the ordinary police. Hitler also established the Waffen-SS as a separate troop.
The regime showed particular hostility towards the Jews. In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called Nuremberg race laws directed against Jewish citizens. Jews lost their German
citizenship, and were banned from marrying Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules.
Hitler re-established the German air force and reintroduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles, but neither the United Kingdom, France or
Italy went beyond issuing notes of protest.
In 1936 German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. In this case, the Treaty of Locarno would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. But despite protests by the
French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the 1936 Summer Olympics, which were
held in the same year in Berlin and in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime.
On 11 August 1919 the Weimar constitution came into effect, with Friedrich Ebert as first President.
The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the German Communist Party (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the
establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new
constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic.
In the first months of 1920, the Reichswehr was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many Freikorps - units made up of
volunteers. Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician Wolfgang Kapp. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself
Reich Chancellor (Kapp Putsch). After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which
were bloodily suppressed.
Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new Soviet Union. Under the
Treaty of Rapallo, Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims.
When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population
of the Ruhr to passive resistance: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat
would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, insofar as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also
led to hyperinflation, and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right. See 1920s German inflation.
In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor Gustav Stresemann to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new
currency, the Rentenmark (later: Reichsmark), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial
production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913.
On the evening of November 8, 1923, six hundred armed SA men surrounded a beer hall in Munich, where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local Reichswehr had gathered for a rally. The storm
troopers were led by Adolf Hitler. Born in 1889 in Austria, a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called NSDAP, he was largely unknown until then. Hitler tried
to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power (Beer Hall Putsch). Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after
less than one year of detention.
The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (Ruck nach rechts). Field Marshal Hindenburg, a supporter of the monarchy, was elected President in 1925.
In October 1925 the Treaty of Locarno was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain,
Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the League of
Nations in 1926.
The stock market crash of 1929 on Wall Street marked the beginning of the Great Depression. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation
rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the Darmstätter und Nationalbank - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000.
In addition to the flaggling economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the Reichstag to build a governing majority. In March 1930, President Hindenburg
appointed Heinrich Brüning Chancellor. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency
decrees, and even dissolved Parliament. In March and April 1932, Hindenburg was re-elected in the German presidential election of 1932.
Of the many splinter parties the NSDAP was the largest in the national elections of 1932. The Prussian government had been ousted by a coup (Preussenschlag) in 1932. On July 31, 1932 the NSDAP
had received 37.3% of the votes, and in the election on 6 November 1932 it received less, but still the largest share, 33.1, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third,
with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were
unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the petite bourgeoisie (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural
population; and among the army of unemployed.
On January 30, 1933, pressured by former Chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor.
Weimar Republic Results of Elections 1919-1933, Electiontions 1932, 1933
Third Reich
Main articles: Nazi Germany, The Holocaust, and Military history of Germany during World War II
[edit] Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power'
In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, Hitler called for new elections. On the evening of 27 February 1933, a fire was set in the Reichstag building. Hitler swiftly blamed an alleged
Communist uprising, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree. This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the
Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself.
Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into concentration camps, where they were at the mercy of the Gestapo, the newly established secret police force (9,000 were
found guilty and very many executed). Communist Reichstag deputies were taken into protective custody (despite their constitutional privileges).
Despite the terror and unprecedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of March 5 1933, while resulting in 43.9% failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Together
with the German National People's Party (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. With accommodations to the Catholic Centre Party Germany, Hitler succeeded in convincing
a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass the Enabling act of 1933 which gave his government full legislative power. Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act
formed the basis for the Dictatorship, dissolution of the Länder; the trade unions and all political parties other than the National Socialist (Nazi) Party were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state
was established, no longer based on the liberal Weimar constitution. Germany left the League of Nations. The coalition Parliament was rigged on this fateful 23 March 1933 by defining the absence of
arrested and murdered deputies as voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a quid pro quo with the Holy
See under the anti-communist Pope Pius XI for the Reichskonkordat; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international
diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933 .
However, many leaders of the Nazi SA were disappointed. The Chief of Staff of the SA, Ernst Röhm, was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the Wehrmacht under his supreme command. Hitler
felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of June 30, 1934, he gave order to the SS to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial (known as the Night of the Long Knives).
The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler. He would become the supervisor of the Gestapo and of the concentration camps, soon
also of the ordinary police. Hitler also established the Waffen-SS as a separate troop.
The regime showed particular hostility towards the Jews. In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called Nuremberg race laws directed against Jewish citizens. Jews lost their German
citizenship, and were banned from marrying Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules.
Hitler re-established the German air force and reintroduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles, but neither the United Kingdom, France or
Italy went beyond issuing notes of protest.
In 1936 German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. In this case, the Treaty of Locarno would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. But despite protests by the
French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the 1936 Summer Olympics, which were
held in the same year in Berlin and in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime.
| AAAPOE Campus |
| AAAPOE Campus: 002: History Hall 歷史館 历史馆 002-005: History of Germany from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
| |
 |
Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871, the History of Germany dates back to the era of the
Germanic tribes. Following the migration period, the Franks subsequently subdued the West Germanic tribes,
who made up for most of East Francia after the Frankish Empire fell apart. Their emperors saw themselves as
legitimate heirs of the Roman Empire, and until 1806 ruled a Holy Roman Empire comprising most of Central
Europe, that saw massive German settlement in the course of the medieval Ostsiedlung.
Yet, since the High Middle Ages, the kings, dukes and princes of the empire managed to gain power at the
expense of the emperors and over time became nearly autonomous rulers in their territories. The northern states
became Protestant after the early 16th century Protestant reformation, while the southern states remained
Roman Catholic. In the 17th century, the opponents clashed in the Thirty Years' War, leaving the empire
devastated and vast areas depopulated. Of the abundant German states (Kleinstaaterei), Prussia managed to
become the largest and dominating state of the North, while Austria united with Hungary forming a multi-ethnic
empire in the south.
Germanic tribes. Following the migration period, the Franks subsequently subdued the West Germanic tribes,
who made up for most of East Francia after the Frankish Empire fell apart. Their emperors saw themselves as
legitimate heirs of the Roman Empire, and until 1806 ruled a Holy Roman Empire comprising most of Central
Europe, that saw massive German settlement in the course of the medieval Ostsiedlung.
Yet, since the High Middle Ages, the kings, dukes and princes of the empire managed to gain power at the
expense of the emperors and over time became nearly autonomous rulers in their territories. The northern states
became Protestant after the early 16th century Protestant reformation, while the southern states remained
Roman Catholic. In the 17th century, the opponents clashed in the Thirty Years' War, leaving the empire
devastated and vast areas depopulated. Of the abundant German states (Kleinstaaterei), Prussia managed to
become the largest and dominating state of the North, while Austria united with Hungary forming a multi-ethnic
empire in the south.
| The Reichstag Building at the end of 19th century |
Ancient times
Medieval times
Building a nation
Post-war Germany since
1945
Present day Germany
Topical
Medieval times
Building a nation
- Confederation of the
Rhine - German
Confederation - German Revolutions
of 1848 - North German
Confederation - Unification of Germany
Post-war Germany since
1945
Present day Germany
Topical
Germanic tribes (100 BC to 300 AD)
Main articles: Germanic peoples and Germania
The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes is assumed to have occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest, during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern
Scandinavia and northern Germany, the tribes began expanding south, east and west in the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as
Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe. Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their recorded interactions with the Roman Empire,
etymological research, and archaeological finds.[1]
Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (a term used by the Romans running roughly from the Rhine to the Urals), and it
was in this period that the Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare while maintaining their tribal identity. In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus
were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Modern Germany, as far as the Rhine and the Danube, thus remained outside the
Roman Empire. By AD 100, the time of Tacitus' Germania, Germanic tribes settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of
modern Germany. The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii.
Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier into Roman-controlled lands.[2]
See also: List of meanings of countries' names
Main articles: Germanic peoples and Germania
The ethnogenesis of the Germanic tribes is assumed to have occurred during the Nordic Bronze Age, or at the latest, during the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern
Scandinavia and northern Germany, the tribes began expanding south, east and west in the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as
Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe. Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their recorded interactions with the Roman Empire,
etymological research, and archaeological finds.[1]
Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (a term used by the Romans running roughly from the Rhine to the Urals), and it
was in this period that the Germanic tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare while maintaining their tribal identity. In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus
were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Modern Germany, as far as the Rhine and the Danube, thus remained outside the
Roman Empire. By AD 100, the time of Tacitus' Germania, Germanic tribes settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of
modern Germany. The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes: Alamanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisians, Sicambri, and Thuringii.
Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier into Roman-controlled lands.[2]
See also: List of meanings of countries' names
| The prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire. (left to right: Archbishop of Cologne, Archbishop of Mainz, Archbishop of Trier, Count Palatine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia) |
Middle Ages
Main article: Holy Roman Empire
From 772 to 814 king Charlemagne extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all
west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne's authority in
Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in Rome. The Frankish empire was divided into
counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (Kaiserpfalzen) became
economic and cultural centres (Aachen being the most famous[citation needed]).
Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was
partitioned into several parts in the Treaty of Verdun, the Treaty of Meerssen and the Treaty of Ribemont. The
German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, East Francia. From 919 to 936 the Germanic
peoples (Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians) were united under Duke Henry of Saxony, who took the title
of king. For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans ("Regnum Teutonicorum") was applied to a
Frankish kingdom, even though Teutonicorum at its founding originally meant something closer to "Realm of the
Germanic peoples" or "Germanic Realm" than realm of the Germans.
In 936 Otto I the Great was crowned at Aachen. He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and
abbots as princes of the Empire (Reichsfürsten), thereby establishing a national church. In 951 Otto the Great
married the widowed Queen Adelheid, thereby winning the Lombard crown. Outside threats to the kingdom were
contained with the decisive defeat of the Magyars of Hungary near Augsburg at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 and
the subjugation of Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome,
taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong Frankish influence over the Papacy.
In 1033 the Kingdom of Burgundy was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Conrad II, the
first emperor of the Salian dynasty.
Main article: Holy Roman Empire
From 772 to 814 king Charlemagne extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all
west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne's authority in
Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in Rome. The Frankish empire was divided into
counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (Kaiserpfalzen) became
economic and cultural centres (Aachen being the most famous[citation needed]).
Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was
partitioned into several parts in the Treaty of Verdun, the Treaty of Meerssen and the Treaty of Ribemont. The
German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, East Francia. From 919 to 936 the Germanic
peoples (Franks, Saxons, Swabians and Bavarians) were united under Duke Henry of Saxony, who took the title
of king. For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans ("Regnum Teutonicorum") was applied to a
Frankish kingdom, even though Teutonicorum at its founding originally meant something closer to "Realm of the
Germanic peoples" or "Germanic Realm" than realm of the Germans.
In 936 Otto I the Great was crowned at Aachen. He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and
abbots as princes of the Empire (Reichsfürsten), thereby establishing a national church. In 951 Otto the Great
married the widowed Queen Adelheid, thereby winning the Lombard crown. Outside threats to the kingdom were
contained with the decisive defeat of the Magyars of Hungary near Augsburg at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 and
the subjugation of Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder rivers. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome,
taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong Frankish influence over the Papacy.
In 1033 the Kingdom of Burgundy was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Conrad II, the
first emperor of the Salian dynasty.
During the reign of his son Henry III the Holy Roman Empire supported the Cluniac reform of the Church - the
Peace of God, the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Imperial
authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (Pfalz) was built at Goslar, as the Empire
continued its expansion to the East.
In the Investiture Dispute which began between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over appointments to
ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been
excommunicated. In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the
Concordat of Worms. The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the Ottonian National
Church Reichskirche, and a strengthening of the Imperial secular princes.
The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the crusades. Knightly religious orders were established,
including the Templars, the Knights of St John and the Teutonic Order.
From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries.
The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties (see German town law), while the rural population
remained in a state of serfdom. In particular, several cities became Imperial Free Cities, which did not depend on
princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants
carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain
control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the
Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck.
The German colonization and the chartering of new towns and villages began into largely Slav-inhabited
territories east of the Elbe, such as Bohemia, Silesia, Pomerania, and Livonia (see also Ostsiedlung).
Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of Frederick I (Barbarossa), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, an
accommodation was reached with the rival Guelph party by the grant of the duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony. Austria became a separate duchy by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Barbarossa tried to
reassert his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in
Venice.
In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach (founder of the Wittelsbach
dynasty which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided.
From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the Reichsfest (imperial
celebrations) held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of
Sicily. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of "ministerials" (unfree servants of the
Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and
literature (see Wolfram von Eschenbach).
Between 1212 and 1250 Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state in Sicily. He
resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign
powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states.
The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After
his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor.
Beginning in 1226 under the auspices of Emperor Frederick II, the Teutonic Knights began their conquest of
Prussia after being invited to Chełmno Land by the Polish Duke Konrad I of Masovia. The native Baltic Prussians
Peace of God, the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Imperial
authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (Pfalz) was built at Goslar, as the Empire
continued its expansion to the East.
In the Investiture Dispute which began between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII over appointments to
ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at Canossa in 1077, after having been
excommunicated. In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between Henry V and the Pope with the
Concordat of Worms. The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the Ottonian National
Church Reichskirche, and a strengthening of the Imperial secular princes.
The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the crusades. Knightly religious orders were established,
including the Templars, the Knights of St John and the Teutonic Order.
From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries.
The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties (see German town law), while the rural population
remained in a state of serfdom. In particular, several cities became Imperial Free Cities, which did not depend on
princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants
carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain
control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the
Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck.
The German colonization and the chartering of new towns and villages began into largely Slav-inhabited
territories east of the Elbe, such as Bohemia, Silesia, Pomerania, and Livonia (see also Ostsiedlung).
Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of Frederick I (Barbarossa), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, an
accommodation was reached with the rival Guelph party by the grant of the duchy of Bavaria to Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony. Austria became a separate duchy by virtue of the Privilegium Minus in 1156. Barbarossa tried to
reassert his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in
Venice.
In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to Otto of Wittelsbach (founder of the Wittelsbach
dynasty which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided.
From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the Reichsfest (imperial
celebrations) held at Mainz and the marriage of his son Henry in Milan to the Norman princess Constance of
Sicily. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of "ministerials" (unfree servants of the
Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and
literature (see Wolfram von Eschenbach).
Between 1212 and 1250 Frederick II established a modern, professionally administered state in Sicily. He
resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign
powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states.
The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After
his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor.
Beginning in 1226 under the auspices of Emperor Frederick II, the Teutonic Knights began their conquest of
Prussia after being invited to Chełmno Land by the Polish Duke Konrad I of Masovia. The native Baltic Prussians
| Castle of the Teutonic Order in Malbork (German: Marienburg) |
were conquered and Christianized by the Knights with much warfare, and numerous German towns were
established along the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. From 1300, however, the Empire started to lose territory on
all its frontiers.
The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV with the papacy led in 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by
six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and
rule over the empire, without papal confirmation.
Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, sought to restore the imperial
authority.
established along the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. From 1300, however, the Empire started to lose territory on
all its frontiers.
The failure of negotiations between Emperor Louis IV with the papacy led in 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by
six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and
rule over the empire, without papal confirmation.
Between 1346 and 1378 Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg, king of Bohemia, sought to restore the imperial
authority.
| Around the middle of the 14th century, the Black Death ravaged Germany and Europe. From the Dance of Death by Hans Holbein (1491) |
Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were ravaged by the Black Death. Jews were persecuted
on religious and economic grounds; many fled to Poland.
The Golden Bull of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by four secular electors (the King
of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg) and three
spiritual electors (the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne).
After the disasters of the 14th century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of
economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among
knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The Fugger family gained
prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular
rulers.
The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary
armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the Habsburgs, who
controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day Austria and Slovenia, and Bohemia and
Moravia after the death of King Louis II in 1526), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman
Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). This situation, however, gave rise to
increased disunity among the Holy Roman Empires territorial rulers and prevented sections of the country from
coming together and forming nations in the manner of France and England.
During his reign from 1493 to 1519, Maximilian I tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court
(Reichskammergericht) was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag)
was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire.
on religious and economic grounds; many fled to Poland.
The Golden Bull of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by four secular electors (the King
of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg) and three
spiritual electors (the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne).
After the disasters of the 14th century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of
economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among
knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The Fugger family gained
prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular
rulers.
The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary
armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by "robber knights" became common. From 1438 the Habsburgs, who
controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day Austria and Slovenia, and Bohemia and
Moravia after the death of King Louis II in 1526), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman
Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). This situation, however, gave rise to
increased disunity among the Holy Roman Empires territorial rulers and prevented sections of the country from
coming together and forming nations in the manner of France and England.
During his reign from 1493 to 1519, Maximilian I tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court
(Reichskammergericht) was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (Reichstag)
was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire.
| "The Holy Roman Empire, 1512. |
| Martin Luther, German reformer, 1529 |
Early modern Germany
see List of states in the Holy Roman Empire for subdivisions and the political
structure
Reformation and Thirty Years War
Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in the Holy
Roman Empire caused by abuses such as indulgences in the Catholic Church and
a general desire for reform.
In 1517 the Reformation began when Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the
church door in Wittenberg. The list detailed 95 things that he deemed unacceptable
about the infrastructure of the Catholic, including the selling of indulgences.
In 1520 Luther was outlawed at the Diet of Worms. But the Reformation spread
rapidly, helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks. Hiding
in the Wartburg Castle, Luther translated the Bible from Latin to German,
establishing the basis of the German language.
In 1524 the Peasants' War broke out in Swabia, Franconia and Thuringia against
ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. But the
revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like Götz von
Berlichingen and Florian Geyer (in Franconia), and by the theologian Thomas
Münzer (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes.
From 1545 the Counter-Reformation began in Germany. The main force was
provided by the Jesuit order, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola. Central
and north-eastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas
western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In 1546, Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V defeated the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of
Protestant rulers.
The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. But the
treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler (Cuius
regio, eius religio).
In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was
separated from the Imperial possessions.
In 1608/1609 the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were formed.
From 1618 to 1648 the Thirty Years' War ravaged in the Holy Roman Empire. The
causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the
various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt
to achieve the religious and political unity of the Empire. The immediate occasion
for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the
emperor (Defenestration of Prague), but the conflict was widened into a European
War by the intervention of King Christian IV of Denmark (1625-29), Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden (1630-48) and France under Cardinal Richelieu, the regent of
the young Louis XIV (1635-48). Germany became the main theatre of war and the
scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in
Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, a loss of
approximately a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment.
The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster and
Osnabrück: Imperial territory was lost to France and Sweden and the Netherlands
left the Holy Roman Empire after being de facto seceded for 80 years already. The
imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased.
End of the Holy Roman Empire
From 1640, Brandenburg-Prussia had started to rise under the Great Elector,
Frederick William. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 strengthened it even further,
through the acquisition of East Pomerania. A system of rule based on absolutism
was established.
In 1701 Elector Frederick of Brandenburg was crowned "King in Prussia". From
1713 to 1740, King Frederick William I, also known as the "Soldier King",
established a highly centralized state.
Meanwhile Louis XIV of France had conquered parts of Alsace and Lorraine
(1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the Palatinate (1688-1697). Louis
XIV benefited from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing
Austria. Louis XIV ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate.
In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside Vienna by a Polish relief army led by King
Jan Sobieski of Poland while the city itself was defended by Imperial and Austrian
troops under the command of Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. Hungary was
reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Austria,
under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power.
In the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Maria Theresa fought successfully
for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the Silesian Wars and in the
Seven Years' War she had to cede Silesia to Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia. After
the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763 between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, Prussia
became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia
and Austria for the leadership of Germany.
see List of states in the Holy Roman Empire for subdivisions and the political
structure
Reformation and Thirty Years War
Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in the Holy
Roman Empire caused by abuses such as indulgences in the Catholic Church and
a general desire for reform.
In 1517 the Reformation began when Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the
church door in Wittenberg. The list detailed 95 things that he deemed unacceptable
about the infrastructure of the Catholic, including the selling of indulgences.
In 1520 Luther was outlawed at the Diet of Worms. But the Reformation spread
rapidly, helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks. Hiding
in the Wartburg Castle, Luther translated the Bible from Latin to German,
establishing the basis of the German language.
In 1524 the Peasants' War broke out in Swabia, Franconia and Thuringia against
ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. But the
revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like Götz von
Berlichingen and Florian Geyer (in Franconia), and by the theologian Thomas
Münzer (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes.
From 1545 the Counter-Reformation began in Germany. The main force was
provided by the Jesuit order, founded by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola. Central
and north-eastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas
western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In 1546, Holy
Roman Emperor Charles V defeated the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of
Protestant rulers.
The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. But the
treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler (Cuius
regio, eius religio).
In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was
separated from the Imperial possessions.
In 1608/1609 the Protestant Union and the Catholic League were formed.
From 1618 to 1648 the Thirty Years' War ravaged in the Holy Roman Empire. The
causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the
various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt
to achieve the religious and political unity of the Empire. The immediate occasion
for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the
emperor (Defenestration of Prague), but the conflict was widened into a European
War by the intervention of King Christian IV of Denmark (1625-29), Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden (1630-48) and France under Cardinal Richelieu, the regent of
the young Louis XIV (1635-48). Germany became the main theatre of war and the
scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in
Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, a loss of
approximately a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment.
The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, signed in Münster and
Osnabrück: Imperial territory was lost to France and Sweden and the Netherlands
left the Holy Roman Empire after being de facto seceded for 80 years already. The
imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased.
End of the Holy Roman Empire
From 1640, Brandenburg-Prussia had started to rise under the Great Elector,
Frederick William. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 strengthened it even further,
through the acquisition of East Pomerania. A system of rule based on absolutism
was established.
In 1701 Elector Frederick of Brandenburg was crowned "King in Prussia". From
1713 to 1740, King Frederick William I, also known as the "Soldier King",
established a highly centralized state.
Meanwhile Louis XIV of France had conquered parts of Alsace and Lorraine
(1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the Palatinate (1688-1697). Louis
XIV benefited from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing
Austria. Louis XIV ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate.
In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside Vienna by a Polish relief army led by King
Jan Sobieski of Poland while the city itself was defended by Imperial and Austrian
troops under the command of Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine. Hungary was
reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Austria,
under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power.
In the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Maria Theresa fought successfully
for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the Silesian Wars and in the
Seven Years' War she had to cede Silesia to Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia. After
the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763 between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, Prussia
became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia
and Austria for the leadership of Germany.
From 1763, against
resistance from the
nobility and citizenry, an
"enlightened
absolutism" was
established in Prussia
and Austria, according to
which the ruler was to be
"the first servant of the
state". The economy
developed and legal
reforms were
undertaken, including
the abolition of torture
and the improvement in
the status of Jews; the
emancipation of the
peasants began.
Education was promoted.
In 1772-1795 Prussia
took part in the partitions
of Poland, occupying
western territories of
Polish-Lithuanian
commonwealth, which
led to centuries of Polish
resistance against
German rule and
persecution.
The French Revolution
sparked a new war
between France and
several of its Eastern
neighbors, including
Prussia and Austria.
Following the Peace of
Basel in 1795 with
Prussia, the west bank
of the Rhine was ceded
to France.
Napoleon I of France
relaunched the war
against the Empire. In
1803, under the
"Reichsdeputationshaupt
schluss" (a resolution of
a committee of the
Imperial Diet meeting in
Regensburg), he
resistance from the
nobility and citizenry, an
"enlightened
absolutism" was
established in Prussia
and Austria, according to
which the ruler was to be
"the first servant of the
state". The economy
developed and legal
reforms were
undertaken, including
the abolition of torture
and the improvement in
the status of Jews; the
emancipation of the
peasants began.
Education was promoted.
In 1772-1795 Prussia
took part in the partitions
of Poland, occupying
western territories of
Polish-Lithuanian
commonwealth, which
led to centuries of Polish
resistance against
German rule and
persecution.
The French Revolution
sparked a new war
between France and
several of its Eastern
neighbors, including
Prussia and Austria.
Following the Peace of
Basel in 1795 with
Prussia, the west bank
of the Rhine was ceded
to France.
Napoleon I of France
relaunched the war
against the Empire. In
1803, under the
"Reichsdeputationshaupt
schluss" (a resolution of
a committee of the
Imperial Diet meeting in
Regensburg), he
| The German Empire in 1705, map "L’Empire d’Allemagne" from Nicolas de Fer |
| After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763, Prussia became a European great power. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany began |
abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most
of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in
south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western
Germany.
The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last
Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria)
resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918.
In 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's
protection.
After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at Jena
and Auerstedt, the Peace of Tilsit was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its
possessions west of the Elbe to France and the kingdom of Westphalia was
established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Some of the territories Prussia
conquered from Poland were regained by Duchy of Warsaw.
From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were
enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the
regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the
emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian
generals Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau.
In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's
army in Russia (1812). After the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, Germany was
liberated from French rule. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved.
In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo by the Britain's Duke of
Wellington and by Prussia's Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.
of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in
south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western
Germany.
The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last
Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria)
resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918.
In 1806 the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's
protection.
After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at Jena
and Auerstedt, the Peace of Tilsit was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its
possessions west of the Elbe to France and the kingdom of Westphalia was
established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Some of the territories Prussia
conquered from Poland were regained by Duchy of Warsaw.
From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were
enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the
regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the
emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian
generals Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau.
In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's
army in Russia (1812). After the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig, Germany was
liberated from French rule. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved.
In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo by the Britain's Duke of
Wellington and by Prussia's Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.
| Frankfurt 1848 |
| Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the Revolution of 1848 in the German states |
German Confederation
Restoration and
Revolution
Main articles: German
Confederation and
Revolutions of 1848 in
the German states
After the fall of Napoleon,
European monarchs and
statesmen convened in
Vienna in 1814 for the
reorganization of
European affairs, under
the leadership of the
Austrian Prince
Metternich. The political
principles agreed upon
at this Congress of
Vienna included the
restoration, legitimacy
and solidarity of rulers
for the repression of
revolutionary and
nationalist ideas.
On the territory of the
former "Holy Roman
Empire of the German
Nation", the German
Confederation
(Deutscher Bund) was
founded, a loose union
of 39 states (35 ruling
princes and 4 free cities)
under Austrian
leadership, with a
Federal Diet
(Bundestag) meeting in
Frankfurt am Main.
In 1817, inspired by
liberal and patriotic
ideas of a united
Germany, student
organisations gathered
for the "Wartburg festival"
Restoration and
Revolution
Main articles: German
Confederation and
Revolutions of 1848 in
the German states
After the fall of Napoleon,
European monarchs and
statesmen convened in
Vienna in 1814 for the
reorganization of
European affairs, under
the leadership of the
Austrian Prince
Metternich. The political
principles agreed upon
at this Congress of
Vienna included the
restoration, legitimacy
and solidarity of rulers
for the repression of
revolutionary and
nationalist ideas.
On the territory of the
former "Holy Roman
Empire of the German
Nation", the German
Confederation
(Deutscher Bund) was
founded, a loose union
of 39 states (35 ruling
princes and 4 free cities)
under Austrian
leadership, with a
Federal Diet
(Bundestag) meeting in
Frankfurt am Main.
In 1817, inspired by
liberal and patriotic
ideas of a united
Germany, student
organisations gathered
for the "Wartburg festival"
at Wartburg Castle, at Eisenach in Thuringia, on the occasion of which reactionary books were burnt.
In 1819 the student Karl Ludwig Sand murdered the writer August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal
student organizations. Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which
Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the Karlsbad Decrees: censorship was
introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The decrees also gave the start to the so-called
"persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading
revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann
Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn.
In 1834 the Zollverein was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but
excluding Austria.
Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in
1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt
Parliament) met in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main to draw up a national German constitution.
But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial
crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the
German Confederation was re-established by 1850.
In 1819 the student Karl Ludwig Sand murdered the writer August von Kotzebue, who had scoffed at liberal
student organizations. Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which
Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the Karlsbad Decrees: censorship was
introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The decrees also gave the start to the so-called
"persecution of the demagogues", which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading
revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, the publisher Johann
Joseph Görres and the "Father of Gymnastics" Ludwig Jahn.
In 1834 the Zollverein was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but
excluding Austria.
Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in
1848, of the March Revolution in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the Frankfurt
Parliament) met in St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main to draw up a national German constitution.
But the 1848 revolution turned out to be unsuccessful: King Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the imperial
crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the
German Confederation was re-established by 1850.
In 1862 Prince Bismarck was nominated chief minister of Prussia - against the opposition of liberals, who saw him as a reactionary.
In 1863-64, disputes between Prussia and Denmark grew over Schleswig, which - unlike Holstein - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate
into the Danish kingdom. The dispute led to the Second War of Schleswig, in the course of which Prussia, joined by Austria, defeated Denmark. Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of
Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of the two duchies caused growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the
Austro-Prussian War (1866). The Prussians were victorious in this war, carrying a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgratz under the command of Helmuth von Moltke.
North German Federation
Main article: North German Federation
In 1866 the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place the North German Federation (German Norddeutscher Bund) was established, under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded,
and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries.
The North German Federation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire, led by Otto Von
Bismarck who was declared chancellor. With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, via the Zollverein, southern Germany.
In 1863-64, disputes between Prussia and Denmark grew over Schleswig, which - unlike Holstein - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate
into the Danish kingdom. The dispute led to the Second War of Schleswig, in the course of which Prussia, joined by Austria, defeated Denmark. Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of
Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of the two duchies caused growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the
Austro-Prussian War (1866). The Prussians were victorious in this war, carrying a decisive victory at the Battle of Königgratz under the command of Helmuth von Moltke.
North German Federation
Main article: North German Federation
In 1866 the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place the North German Federation (German Norddeutscher Bund) was established, under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded,
and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries.
The North German Federation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire, led by Otto Von
Bismarck who was declared chancellor. With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, via the Zollverein, southern Germany.
| On 18 January 1871, the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white. |
| The German Empire of 1871. By excluding Austria, Bismarck chose a "little German" solution. |
| Otto von Bismarck |
German Empire
Main article: German Empire
Age of Bismarck
Differences between France and Prussia over the possible accession to the
Spanish throne of a German candidate — whom France opposed — was the
French pretext to declare the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Due to their
defensive treaties, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the
command of Moltke, repelled French troops which had occupied Saarbrücken and
proceeded to invade France in August 1870. After a few weeks, the French army
was finally forced to capitulate in the fortress of Sedan. French Emperor Napoleon III
was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed, yet the new republic
decided to prolong the war for several months. Months after the Siege of Paris was
lifted, the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed: France was obliged to cede what
became known as Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. The ceded area consisted of
Alsace and parts of Lorraine. The fact that many small, French-speaking areas were
included was used by France to denounce the new border as hypocrisy, since
Germany had justified it by the native Germanic dialects and culture of the areas
inhabitants.
During the Siege of Paris, the German princes assembled in the Hall of Mirrors of
the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King Wilhelm I as the
"German Emperor" on 18 January 1871. The German Empire was thus founded,
with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic free cities, and Bismarck, again,
served as Chancellor. It was dubbed the "Little German" solution, since Austria was
not included.
Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his
fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called
Kulturkampf (1872–1878), he tried to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic
Church and of its political arm, the Catholic Centre Party, through various measures
— like the introduction of civil marriage — but without much success. Millions of non-
Germans subjects in the German Empire, like the Polish, Danish and French
minorities, were discriminated against [1][2] and a policy of Germanization was
implemented.
The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known
as the Social Democratic Party of Germany), whose declared aim was the
establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of existing
political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social
democratic movement by outlawing the party's organization, its assemblies and
most of its newspapers. Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on
the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire.
Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of
alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to
initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and
isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance
with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.
The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany.
It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the
three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck
needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated.
In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the
aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was
not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin.
The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory
stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between
Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the
case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia.
In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance to form a Triple Alliance. Italy wanted to defend
its interests in North Africa against France's colonial policy. In return for German and
Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French
military attack.
For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Crown Prince Wilhelm II's
aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German
colonies ("a place in the sun", originally a statement of Bernhard von Bülow).
Bismarck wanted to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would
threaten the security of Germany at all cost. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the
foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies
were established overseas: in Africa, these were Togo, the Cameroons, German
South-West Africa and German East Africa; in Oceania, they were German New
Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands. In fact, it was Bismarck
himself who helped initiate the Berlin Conference of 1885. He did it "establish
international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory," (see Colonisation of
Africa). This conference was an impetus for the "Scramble for Africa" and "New
Imperialism".
In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died at age 91, and his terminally ill son Friedrich III ruled
for only 99 days before his death. The 29 year old and ambitious Wilhelm II,
Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between
Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be "his own chancellor", eventually
caused Bismarck to resign in 1890.
Main article: German Empire
Age of Bismarck
Differences between France and Prussia over the possible accession to the
Spanish throne of a German candidate — whom France opposed — was the
French pretext to declare the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Due to their
defensive treaties, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the
command of Moltke, repelled French troops which had occupied Saarbrücken and
proceeded to invade France in August 1870. After a few weeks, the French army
was finally forced to capitulate in the fortress of Sedan. French Emperor Napoleon III
was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed, yet the new republic
decided to prolong the war for several months. Months after the Siege of Paris was
lifted, the Peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed: France was obliged to cede what
became known as Alsace-Lorraine to Germany. The ceded area consisted of
Alsace and parts of Lorraine. The fact that many small, French-speaking areas were
included was used by France to denounce the new border as hypocrisy, since
Germany had justified it by the native Germanic dialects and culture of the areas
inhabitants.
During the Siege of Paris, the German princes assembled in the Hall of Mirrors of
the Palace of Versailles and proclaimed the Prussian King Wilhelm I as the
"German Emperor" on 18 January 1871. The German Empire was thus founded,
with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic free cities, and Bismarck, again,
served as Chancellor. It was dubbed the "Little German" solution, since Austria was
not included.
Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his
fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called
Kulturkampf (1872–1878), he tried to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic
Church and of its political arm, the Catholic Centre Party, through various measures
— like the introduction of civil marriage — but without much success. Millions of non-
Germans subjects in the German Empire, like the Polish, Danish and French
minorities, were discriminated against [1][2] and a policy of Germanization was
implemented.
The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known
as the Social Democratic Party of Germany), whose declared aim was the
establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of existing
political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social
democratic movement by outlawing the party's organization, its assemblies and
most of its newspapers. Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on
the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire.
Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of
alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to
initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and
isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance
with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.
The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany.
It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the
three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck
needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated.
In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the
aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was
not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin.
The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory
stance, and in 1887, the so-called Reinsurance Treaty was signed between
Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the
case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia.
In 1882, Italy joined the Dual Alliance to form a Triple Alliance. Italy wanted to defend
its interests in North Africa against France's colonial policy. In return for German and
Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French
military attack.
For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Crown Prince Wilhelm II's
aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German
colonies ("a place in the sun", originally a statement of Bernhard von Bülow).
Bismarck wanted to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would
threaten the security of Germany at all cost. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the
foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies
were established overseas: in Africa, these were Togo, the Cameroons, German
South-West Africa and German East Africa; in Oceania, they were German New
Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and the Marshall Islands. In fact, it was Bismarck
himself who helped initiate the Berlin Conference of 1885. He did it "establish
international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory," (see Colonisation of
Africa). This conference was an impetus for the "Scramble for Africa" and "New
Imperialism".
In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died at age 91, and his terminally ill son Friedrich III ruled
for only 99 days before his death. The 29 year old and ambitious Wilhelm II,
Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between
Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be "his own chancellor", eventually
caused Bismarck to resign in 1890.
| A postage stamp from the Carolines, dating back to the time when the islands were ruled by the German Empire. The new Weltpolitik of Kaiser Wilhelm II led to frictions with other imperialist powers. |
Wilhelminian Era
When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in
the world (Weltpolitik). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The
Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy.
From 1898, German colonial expansion in East Asia (Jiaozhou Bay, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan and the United States. The
construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the North Sea with the Persian Gulf via the Bosporus, also collided with British and
Russian geopolitical and economic interests.
To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, Admiral von Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction in 1898. This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result
that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated.
Main article: History of Germany during World War I
Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the First World War, sparked by the assassination, on June 28, 1914, of the Austrian
heir-apparent Franz Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo, in the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina by a Serbian nationalist. The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the
European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the
underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and several
other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies.
In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through Belgium, German troops were halted on the Marne, north of Paris. The frontlines in France changed little
until the end of the war. In the east, despite there being initially no decisive victories against the Russian army, the trapping and defeat of large parts of the Russian contingent at the Battle of
Tannenberg, followed by smaller Austrian and German successes led to a breakdown of Russian forces and an imposed peace. The British naval blockade in the North Sea had crippling effects on
Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germany's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare marked a decisive
turning-point against Germany.
At the end of October, units of the German Navy in Kiel, in northern Germany, refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost. On November 3, the uprising
spread to other cities. So-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established.
Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. On November 9, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. On November 11, an armistice ending the war was
signed at Compiègne.
When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in
the world (Weltpolitik). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The
Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy.
From 1898, German colonial expansion in East Asia (Jiaozhou Bay, the Marianas, the Caroline Islands, Samoa) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan and the United States. The
construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the North Sea with the Persian Gulf via the Bosporus, also collided with British and
Russian geopolitical and economic interests.
To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, Admiral von Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction in 1898. This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result
that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated.
Main article: History of Germany during World War I
Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the First World War, sparked by the assassination, on June 28, 1914, of the Austrian
heir-apparent Franz Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo, in the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina by a Serbian nationalist. The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the
European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the
underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan and several
other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies.
In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through Belgium, German troops were halted on the Marne, north of Paris. The frontlines in France changed little
until the end of the war. In the east, despite there being initially no decisive victories against the Russian army, the trapping and defeat of large parts of the Russian contingent at the Battle of
Tannenberg, followed by smaller Austrian and German successes led to a breakdown of Russian forces and an imposed peace. The British naval blockade in the North Sea had crippling effects on
Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germany's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare marked a decisive
turning-point against Germany.
At the end of October, units of the German Navy in Kiel, in northern Germany, refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost. On November 3, the uprising
spread to other cities. So-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established.
Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. On November 9, the Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann proclaimed a Republic. On November 11, an armistice ending the war was
signed at Compiègne.
| States of Germany at the time of the Weimar Republic, with Prussia in blue |
Weimar Republic
Main article: Weimar
Republic
On 28 June 1919 the
Treaty of Versailles was
signed. Germany was to
cede Alsace-Lorraine,
Eupen-Malmédy, North
Schleswig, and the
Memel area. Poland was
restored and most of the
provinces of Posen and
West Prussia, and some
areas of Upper Silesia
were reincorporated into
the reformed country
after plebiscites and
independence uprisings.
All German colonies
were to be handed over
to the Allies. The left and
right banks of the Rhine
were to be permanently
demilitarised. The
industrially important
Saarland was to be
governed by the League
of Nations for 15 years
and its coalfields
administered by France.
At the end of that time a
plebiscite was to
determine the Saar's
future status. To ensure
execution of the treaty's
terms, Allied troops
would occupy the left
(German) bank of the
Rhine for a period of 5–
15 years. The German
army was to be limited to
100,000 officers and
men; the general staff
was to be dissolved; vast
quantities of war
material were to be
handed over and the
manufacture of
munitions rigidly
curtailed. The navy was
to be similarly reduced,
and no military aircraft
were allowed. Germany
and its allies were to
accept the sole
responsibility of the war,
in accordance with the
War Guilt Clause, and
were to pay financial
reparations for all loss
and damage suffered by
the Allies.
Main article: Weimar
Republic
On 28 June 1919 the
Treaty of Versailles was
signed. Germany was to
cede Alsace-Lorraine,
Eupen-Malmédy, North
Schleswig, and the
Memel area. Poland was
restored and most of the
provinces of Posen and
West Prussia, and some
areas of Upper Silesia
were reincorporated into
the reformed country
after plebiscites and
independence uprisings.
All German colonies
were to be handed over
to the Allies. The left and
right banks of the Rhine
were to be permanently
demilitarised. The
industrially important
Saarland was to be
governed by the League
of Nations for 15 years
and its coalfields
administered by France.
At the end of that time a
plebiscite was to
determine the Saar's
future status. To ensure
execution of the treaty's
terms, Allied troops
would occupy the left
(German) bank of the
Rhine for a period of 5–
15 years. The German
army was to be limited to
100,000 officers and
men; the general staff
was to be dissolved; vast
quantities of war
material were to be
handed over and the
manufacture of
munitions rigidly
curtailed. The navy was
to be similarly reduced,
and no military aircraft
were allowed. Germany
and its allies were to
accept the sole
responsibility of the war,
in accordance with the
War Guilt Clause, and
were to pay financial
reparations for all loss
and damage suffered by
the Allies.
Expansion and defeat
After establishing the "Rome-Berlin axis" with Mussolini, and signing the
Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan - which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 -
Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On 12 March 1938, German
troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful
in 1934. When Hitler entered Vienna, he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks
later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation (Anschluss) of their country
to the German Reich. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of an all encompassing
German Reich with the inclusion of Austria - the "greater Germany" solution that
Bismarck had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German-speaking lands under
Prussian leadership. Although the annexation denounced the Treaty of
Saint-Germain, which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany,
the western powers once again merely protested.
After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia, where the 3.5 million-strong Sudeten
German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the Munich
Conference of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier
agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by
Czechoslovakia. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial
claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement,
in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as
a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia
and Moravia. In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to
Germany. British Prime Minister Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his
policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed.
In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for World War II. The Nazi
leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the Jewish population of Nazi
Germany and later in the occupied countries through forced deportation and,
ultimately, genocide now known as the Holocaust. A similar policy applied to the
various ethnic and national groups considered subhuman such as Poles , Roma or
After establishing the "Rome-Berlin axis" with Mussolini, and signing the
Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan - which was joined by Italy a year later in 1937 -
Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On 12 March 1938, German
troops marched into Austria, where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful
in 1934. When Hitler entered Vienna, he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks
later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation (Anschluss) of their country
to the German Reich. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of an all encompassing
German Reich with the inclusion of Austria - the "greater Germany" solution that
Bismarck had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German-speaking lands under
Prussian leadership. Although the annexation denounced the Treaty of
Saint-Germain, which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany,
the western powers once again merely protested.
After Austria, Hitler turned to Czechoslovakia, where the 3.5 million-strong Sudeten
German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the Munich
Conference of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British
Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier
agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to the German Reich by
Czechoslovakia. Hitler thereupon declared that all of German Reich's territorial
claims had been fulfilled. However, hardly six months after the Munich Agreement,
in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slovaks and Czechs as
a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia
and Moravia. In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to
Germany. British Prime Minister Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his
policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed.
In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for World War II. The Nazi
leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the Jewish population of Nazi
Germany and later in the occupied countries through forced deportation and,
ultimately, genocide now known as the Holocaust. A similar policy applied to the
various ethnic and national groups considered subhuman such as Poles , Roma or
Russians. These groups were seen as threats to the purity of Germany's Aryan race. There were also many groups, such as the mentally handicapped and those who were physically challenged from
birth, which were singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity. After annexing the Sudetenland border country of Czechoslovakia (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a
protectorate (March 1939), the German Reich and the Soviet Union invaded Poland on first September 1939 predominantly as part of the Wehrmacht operation codenamed Fall Weiss. The invasion of
Poland began World War II.
By 1941, the Germans were having the upper hand, but the tide turned in December 1941 after the invasion of the Soviet Union stalled in front of Moscow and the USA joined the war. Because of the
invasion (see Operation Barbarossa) , the Soviets joined the Allies.The tide turned further after the Battle of Stalingrad. By late 1944, the United States and Great Britain were closing in on Germany in
the West, while the Soviets were closing from the East. In May 1945, Nazi Germany collapsed when Berlin was taken over by Soviet and Polish forces. Hitler committed suicide when it seemed
inevitable that the Allies would win.
By September 1945, the German Reich (which lasted only 10 years) and its Axis partners (Italy and Japan) had been defeated, chiefly by the forces of the Soviet Union, the United States, United
Kingdom, France and Canada. Much of Europe lay in ruins, over sixty million people had been killed (most of them civilians), including approximately six million Jews and five million non-Jews in what
became known as the Holocaust. World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructure and led directly to its partition, considerable loss of territory (especially in
the east), and historical legacy of guilt and shame.
birth, which were singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity. After annexing the Sudetenland border country of Czechoslovakia (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a
protectorate (March 1939), the German Reich and the Soviet Union invaded Poland on first September 1939 predominantly as part of the Wehrmacht operation codenamed Fall Weiss. The invasion of
Poland began World War II.
By 1941, the Germans were having the upper hand, but the tide turned in December 1941 after the invasion of the Soviet Union stalled in front of Moscow and the USA joined the war. Because of the
invasion (see Operation Barbarossa) , the Soviets joined the Allies.The tide turned further after the Battle of Stalingrad. By late 1944, the United States and Great Britain were closing in on Germany in
the West, while the Soviets were closing from the East. In May 1945, Nazi Germany collapsed when Berlin was taken over by Soviet and Polish forces. Hitler committed suicide when it seemed
inevitable that the Allies would win.
By September 1945, the German Reich (which lasted only 10 years) and its Axis partners (Italy and Japan) had been defeated, chiefly by the forces of the Soviet Union, the United States, United
Kingdom, France and Canada. Much of Europe lay in ruins, over sixty million people had been killed (most of them civilians), including approximately six million Jews and five million non-Jews in what
became known as the Holocaust. World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructure and led directly to its partition, considerable loss of territory (especially in
the east), and historical legacy of guilt and shame.
| Soviet soldiers storming the Berlin Metro 1945 |
| Prisoners of war in the streets of Berlin. |
Reunification
Main article: Reunification of Germany
Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor Willy Brandt launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist
states (Ostpolitik) in the 1970s, culminating in the Warschauer Kniefall on 7 December 1970. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany
under Brandt's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany
were admitted to the United Nations.
During the summer of 1989, rapid changes known as peaceful revolution or Die Wende took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to German reunification. Growing numbers of East Germans
emigrated to West Germany, many via Hungary after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German
diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, most notably in Prague. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities
continued to grow.
Faced with civil unrest, East German leader Erich Honecker was forced to resign in October, and on 9 November, East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West
Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led
to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the German reunification that came into force on 3 October 1990.
Role in the European Union
Together with France and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the European Union. Germany (especially under Chancellor Helmut Kohl) was one of the main supporters of
the wish of many East European countries to join the EU. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified
and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the UN Security Council, identifying France, Russia
and Japan as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid.
Historiography
Main article: Sonderweg
A major historiographical debate about the German history concerns the Sonderweg, the alleged “special path” that separated German history from the “normal” course of historical development, and
whether or not Nazi Germany was the inevitable result of the Sonderweg. Proponents of the Sonderweg theory such as Fritz Fischer point to such events of the Revolution of 1848, the authoritarian of
the Second Empire and the continuation of the Imperial elite into the Weimar and Nazi periods. Opponents such as Gerhard Ritter of the Sonderweg theory argue that proponents of the theory are guilty
of seeking selective examples, and there was much contingency and chance in German history. In addition, there was much debate within the supporters of the Sonderweg concept as for the reasons
for the Sonderweg, and whether or not the Sonderweg ended in 1945.
Main article: Reunification of Germany
Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor Willy Brandt launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist
states (Ostpolitik) in the 1970s, culminating in the Warschauer Kniefall on 7 December 1970. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany
under Brandt's Ostpolitik was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation." Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany
were admitted to the United Nations.
During the summer of 1989, rapid changes known as peaceful revolution or Die Wende took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to German reunification. Growing numbers of East Germans
emigrated to West Germany, many via Hungary after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German
diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, most notably in Prague. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities
continued to grow.
Faced with civil unrest, East German leader Erich Honecker was forced to resign in October, and on 9 November, East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West
Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led
to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the German reunification that came into force on 3 October 1990.
Role in the European Union
Together with France and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the European Union. Germany (especially under Chancellor Helmut Kohl) was one of the main supporters of
the wish of many East European countries to join the EU. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified
and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the UN Security Council, identifying France, Russia
and Japan as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid.
Historiography
Main article: Sonderweg
A major historiographical debate about the German history concerns the Sonderweg, the alleged “special path” that separated German history from the “normal” course of historical development, and
whether or not Nazi Germany was the inevitable result of the Sonderweg. Proponents of the Sonderweg theory such as Fritz Fischer point to such events of the Revolution of 1848, the authoritarian of
the Second Empire and the continuation of the Imperial elite into the Weimar and Nazi periods. Opponents such as Gerhard Ritter of the Sonderweg theory argue that proponents of the theory are guilty
of seeking selective examples, and there was much contingency and chance in German history. In addition, there was much debate within the supporters of the Sonderweg concept as for the reasons
for the Sonderweg, and whether or not the Sonderweg ended in 1945.
See also
External links
- Germany portal
- The full text of the
"Reichsdeputatio
nshauptschluss"
of 25th February
1803 - Constitution of
the German
Empire
("Constitution of
Paulskirche") of
28th March 1849,
in full text - Constitutional
charter for the
Prussian State
(Imposed
Constitution of
5th December
1848, in full text) - Kingdom of
Prussia:
Constitutional
charter for the
Prussian State
(Revised
Constitution of
31st January
1850, in full text) - History of
Germany:
Primary
Documents - Pessimistic
Germans Losing
Faith in
Democracy,
Study Shows
References
- ^ Jill N. Claster: Medieval
Experience: 300–1400. NYU Press
1982, p. 35. ISBN 0814713815. - ^ The Cambridge Ancient History,
vol. 12, p. 442. ISBN 0521301998. - ^ Steven Bela Vardy and T. Hunt
Tooley, eds. Ethnic Cleansing in
Twentieth-Century Europe ISBN 0-
8803-3995-0. subsection by
Richard Dominic Wiggers,The
United States and the Refusal to
Feed German Civilians after World
War I - ^ Frederick H. Gareau Morgenthau's
Plan for Industrial Disarmament in
Germany The Western Political
Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun.,
1961), pp. 517-534 - ^ Curtis F. Morgan, Southern
Partnership: James F. Byrnes,
Lucius D. Clay and Germany, 1945
1947 - ^ Ray Salvatore Jennings “The
Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation
Building from Japan, Germany, and
Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq May
2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15 - ^ Ray Salvatore Jennings “The
Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation
Building from Japan, Germany, and
Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq May
2003, Peaceworks No. 49 pg.15 - ^ Pas de Pagaille! Time Magazine
July 28, 1947. - ^ Henderson, David. German
Economic "Miracle" Retrieved 2006,
12-07 - ^ "Marshall Plan 1947-1997 A
German View" by Susan Stern - ^ Colchester, Nico. D-mark day
dawns Financial Times. January 1,
2001. Retrieved 2006, 12-07
Germany portal, articles & topics
History
Timeline · Germanic peoples · Migration Period · Frankish Empire · Holy Roman Empire
(Fencing school) · East Colonisation · Confederation of the Rhine · German Confederation ·
North German Confederation · German Empire · During World War I · Weimar Republic · Nazi
Germany · During World War II · Since 1945 · Occupation and division · Expulsions · East
Germany · West Germany · Reunification · Modern Germany · Military history
Politics
Federal Council (Bundesrat) · Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung) · President · Chancellor
· Cabinet · Elections · Political parties · Foreign relations · Constitution · Constitutional Court ·
Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof)
Geography
Administrative divisions (States · Districts) · Cities · Mountains · Islands · Rivers · Lakes
Economy
History · Taxation · Deutsche Bundesbank · Automobile industry · Federal Ministry for Economics
and Labour · Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development · Frankfurt Stock
Exchange
Demographics
Germans (list) · German language · Education · Religion · Immigration · Human rights · Social
issues · Turks in Germany
Culture
German culture · Weimar culture · Arts · Akademie der Künste · Music (Jazz) · Sport
Transport
Roads · H-Bahn · Rail · Tram · Aviation · Transport operators · Associations
Media
Television · Radio · Magazines · Newspapers · Media companies · Deutsche Presse-Agentur ·
Internet domain
Tourism
Alps · Islands · Heiligendamm · Tourism TriRhena · Romantic Road
Symbols
Names · Flag · Coat of arms · National anthem · D-Schild
Portal
History
Timeline · Germanic peoples · Migration Period · Frankish Empire · Holy Roman Empire
(Fencing school) · East Colonisation · Confederation of the Rhine · German Confederation ·
North German Confederation · German Empire · During World War I · Weimar Republic · Nazi
Germany · During World War II · Since 1945 · Occupation and division · Expulsions · East
Germany · West Germany · Reunification · Modern Germany · Military history
Politics
Federal Council (Bundesrat) · Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung) · President · Chancellor
· Cabinet · Elections · Political parties · Foreign relations · Constitution · Constitutional Court ·
Federal Court of Justice (Bundesgerichtshof)
Geography
Administrative divisions (States · Districts) · Cities · Mountains · Islands · Rivers · Lakes
Economy
History · Taxation · Deutsche Bundesbank · Automobile industry · Federal Ministry for Economics
and Labour · Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development · Frankfurt Stock
Exchange
Demographics
Germans (list) · German language · Education · Religion · Immigration · Human rights · Social
issues · Turks in Germany
Culture
German culture · Weimar culture · Arts · Akademie der Künste · Music (Jazz) · Sport
Transport
Roads · H-Bahn · Rail · Tram · Aviation · Transport operators · Associations
Media
Television · Radio · Magazines · Newspapers · Media companies · Deutsche Presse-Agentur ·
Internet domain
Tourism
Alps · Islands · Heiligendamm · Tourism TriRhena · Romantic Road
Symbols
Names · Flag · Coat of arms · National anthem · D-Schild
Portal
| Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor |
| East Colonisation |
| Confederation of the Rhine |
| German Confederation Coat of arms (from 1848) |
| Federal Republic of Germany |
| War Ensign of Germany 1903-1918 |
| Nazi Germany |
| War Ensign of Germany 1938-1945 |
During the Napoleonic Wars, the French dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. They did not only reorganize the German territories and thereby significantly reduced the
number of states to 39, but also enforced a political system influenced by the ideals of the French revolution. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states loosely allied in the
Austrian-led German Confederation in 1815, aimed at restoring the pre-Napoleonic state. Within this confederation, Prussia included most German states in her Zollverein
free trade area, that excluded Austria. Opposition to the restoration by burghers and students led to the unsuccessful 1848 March Revolution.
In 1866, the Prussian-led North German Confederation replaced the German Confederation, leaving Austria outside. From this confederation, the German Empire was
declared in 1871, led by the Kaiser and his chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The empire underwent industrial revolution and promoted nationalistic ideas. In the First World
War, Germany aimed to gain a status equalling the most successful nation states of the time, Great Britain and France, yet after the 1918 armistice she instead faced
territorial losses, war reparations and other harsh conditions resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. The Kaiser had to resign and democracy was introduced, Germany
became a republic.
This Weimar Republic was abandoned, when the prussian government was ousted by a coup (Preussenschlag) in 1932 (lasting nominally until 1933), when in 1933 the
Nazis took over Germany with Adolf Hitler becoming chancellor of the Third Reich. The Nazis imposed drastic changes on German society and administration, they initiated
the Holocaust, annexations and finally the devastations of World War II. After Nazi Germany's defeat, the Potsdam Agreement left Germany partitioned by the allies and
deprived her of all territory east of the Oder-Neisse line, from which nearly all Germans were expelled along with the other Germans living outside post-war Germany.
From May 1945 to 1949, the Allied Occupation Forces ruled over all of Germany and in 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was made up from the US,
UK and French zones, while the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) evolved from the Soviet zone. While West Germany was a democracy that joined NATO and
the European Union, East Germany was part of the Soviet-controlled Eastern Bloc, separated from the West by the iron curtain with its most prominent part, the Berlin wall.
In 1989, in the course of the peaceful Wende revolution the East German government was overthrown and the wall opened. In 1990, East Germany was reunited with West
Germany.
number of states to 39, but also enforced a political system influenced by the ideals of the French revolution. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states loosely allied in the
Austrian-led German Confederation in 1815, aimed at restoring the pre-Napoleonic state. Within this confederation, Prussia included most German states in her Zollverein
free trade area, that excluded Austria. Opposition to the restoration by burghers and students led to the unsuccessful 1848 March Revolution.
In 1866, the Prussian-led North German Confederation replaced the German Confederation, leaving Austria outside. From this confederation, the German Empire was
declared in 1871, led by the Kaiser and his chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The empire underwent industrial revolution and promoted nationalistic ideas. In the First World
War, Germany aimed to gain a status equalling the most successful nation states of the time, Great Britain and France, yet after the 1918 armistice she instead faced
territorial losses, war reparations and other harsh conditions resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. The Kaiser had to resign and democracy was introduced, Germany
became a republic.
This Weimar Republic was abandoned, when the prussian government was ousted by a coup (Preussenschlag) in 1932 (lasting nominally until 1933), when in 1933 the
Nazis took over Germany with Adolf Hitler becoming chancellor of the Third Reich. The Nazis imposed drastic changes on German society and administration, they initiated
the Holocaust, annexations and finally the devastations of World War II. After Nazi Germany's defeat, the Potsdam Agreement left Germany partitioned by the allies and
deprived her of all territory east of the Oder-Neisse line, from which nearly all Germans were expelled along with the other Germans living outside post-war Germany.
From May 1945 to 1949, the Allied Occupation Forces ruled over all of Germany and in 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) was made up from the US,
UK and French zones, while the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) evolved from the Soviet zone. While West Germany was a democracy that joined NATO and
the European Union, East Germany was part of the Soviet-controlled Eastern Bloc, separated from the West by the iron curtain with its most prominent part, the Berlin wall.
In 1989, in the course of the peaceful Wende revolution the East German government was overthrown and the wall opened. In 1990, East Germany was reunited with West
Germany.
The Franks
The Merovingian kings of the Germanic Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 CE. In the fifth and sixth century the Merovingian kings conquered several other Germanic tribes and kingdoms and
placed them under the control of autonomous dukes of mixed Frankish and native blood. Frankish Colonists were encouraged to move to the newly conquered territories. While the local Germanic
tribes were allowed to preserve their laws, they were pressured into changing their religion.
Frankish Empire
Main article: Frankish Empire
After the fall of the Western Roman empire the Franks created an empire under the Merovingian kings and subjugated the other Germanic tribes. Swabia became a duchy under the Frankish Empire in
496, following the Battle of Tolbiac. Already king Chlothar I ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and made expeditions into Saxony while the Southeast of modern Germany was still under
influence of the Ostrogoths. In 531 Saxons and Franks destroyed the Kingdom of Thuringia. Saxons inhabit the area down to the Unstrut river. During the partition of the Frankish empire their German
territories were a part of Austrasia. In 718 the Franconian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel marked war against Saxony, because of its help for the Neustrians. The Franconian Carloman started in
743 a new war against Saxony, because the Saxons gave aid to Duke Odilo of Bavaria. In 751 Pippin III, mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was
anointed by the Church. The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the Pope, Charlemagne launched a decades-long military campaign against their heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars. The
Saxons (by the Saxon Wars (772-804)) and Avars were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Carolingian Empire.
The Merovingian kings of the Germanic Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 CE. In the fifth and sixth century the Merovingian kings conquered several other Germanic tribes and kingdoms and
placed them under the control of autonomous dukes of mixed Frankish and native blood. Frankish Colonists were encouraged to move to the newly conquered territories. While the local Germanic
tribes were allowed to preserve their laws, they were pressured into changing their religion.
Frankish Empire
Main article: Frankish Empire
After the fall of the Western Roman empire the Franks created an empire under the Merovingian kings and subjugated the other Germanic tribes. Swabia became a duchy under the Frankish Empire in
496, following the Battle of Tolbiac. Already king Chlothar I ruled the greater part of what is now Germany and made expeditions into Saxony while the Southeast of modern Germany was still under
influence of the Ostrogoths. In 531 Saxons and Franks destroyed the Kingdom of Thuringia. Saxons inhabit the area down to the Unstrut river. During the partition of the Frankish empire their German
territories were a part of Austrasia. In 718 the Franconian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel marked war against Saxony, because of its help for the Neustrians. The Franconian Carloman started in
743 a new war against Saxony, because the Saxons gave aid to Duke Odilo of Bavaria. In 751 Pippin III, mayor of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was
anointed by the Church. The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the Pope, Charlemagne launched a decades-long military campaign against their heathen rivals, the Saxons and the Avars. The
Saxons (by the Saxon Wars (772-804)) and Avars were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Carolingian Empire.
 | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  | |  |
